The Use of Salvia divinorum from a Mazatec Perspective

Maqueda's chapter is a mixed-methods synthesis that combines ethnographic description of Mazatec practice, a targeted review of scientific literature, experiential guidance and some primary laboratory work. Ethnographic material describes how the Mazatec prepare and use Salvia divinorum in healing ceremonies (chewing fresh leaves at night, fasting and ritual songs) and reports local therapeutic indications. The chapter also summarises botanical, taxonomic, and conservation observations about the plant's natural history and propagation in the Sierra Madre Oriental of Oaxaca. On the biomedical side, Maqueda presents and cites pharmacological and human experimental work on salvinorin A (SA), the plant's principal active terpene. The chapter refers to laboratory administration of vaporised SA to human volunteers (the author reports administering SA to 32 volunteers) with dose escalation and physiological monitoring, and to EEG measurements taken before and after a 1 mg inhaled dose. Where relevant the chapter draws on animal pharmacology, receptor studies and other published human case reports and surveys to support discussion of mechanisms, subjective phenomenology, safety and therapeutic hypotheses. Finally, the chapter contains a practical, experience‑based “how to” section that describes cultivation, traditional and modern modes of ingestion (chewing fresh leaves, tinctures, smoking potentiated extracts), dosing cautions and set-and-setting recommendations. Maqueda integrates these strands explicitly with the aim of building a bridge between Mazatec practice and Western clinical/research perspectives.

Ethnographic and traditional‑use findings: Maqueda reports that Salvia divinorum (Mazatec xkà pastora / "hierba de María") has long been used by Mazatec curers for divination, for treating arthritis, inflammation, headaches, gastrointestinal complaints, menstrual problems, candidiasis and as a tool in addiction treatment. Traditional administration is chiefly by chewing fresh leaves (often in pairs), or drinking a watery extract at night in the context of a velada with chanting; topical poultices are used for skin complaints. The Mazatec emphasise strict ritual preparation, dietary restrictions and respect for the plant spirit. Smoking dry extracts and high‑potency potentiated concentrates, common in Western non‑traditional use, are viewed by many Mazatec informants as inappropriate and risk producing overwhelming experiences. Pharmacology and human experimental results: Maqueda summarises pharmacological evidence that salvinorin A (SA) is an exceptionally potent, non‑nitrogenous kappa‑opioid receptor (KOR) agonist, mechanistically distinct from classic serotonergic psychedelics (mescaline, psilocybin, LSD). In the author's laboratory administration to 32 volunteers, vaporised SA produced fast‑onset psychotropic effects (under 1 minute) with short duration (≈20 minutes). Subjective effects were dose dependent: low–medium doses increased bodily awareness and interoception and were experienced as pleasant by some volunteers, while high doses produced dissociation, loss of bodily self‑contact and prominent out‑of‑body phenomena. Maqueda reports auditory phenomena (female voices) and a relatively frequent visual–proprioceptive synaesthesia (seeing wave‑like deformations associated with bodily sensations), lateralised effects, and a marked dose‑dependent loss of contact with external reality. Neuroendocrine and neurophysiological measures: In the author's studies SA increased prolactin, antidiuretic hormone and cortisol; subjective and physiological effects were blocked by the opioid antagonist naltrexone, supporting KOR mediation. EEG after 1 mg vaporised SA showed alpha suppression but, distinct from serotonergic psychedelics, a prominent increase in slow delta activity and increases in theta and low‑gamma bands. Safety and longer‑term follow‑up: Maqueda notes that inhaled SA has been physiologically well tolerated in laboratory studies at doses up to 12 mg, and across roughly 112 research participants collated from several labs no serious persistent adverse effects were reported; one‑month follow‑up assessments found no objective evidence of depression, anxiety or visual impairment and some participants reported positive changes in self‑confidence, calm and interpersonal relationships. Retrospective survey data and small case series suggest sporadic recreational use is common and repeated use is relatively uncommon; case reports of heavier repeated use without major harms are cited but long‑term data remain limited. Therapeutic signals and preclinical data: Animal and in‑vitro data discussed include analgesic effects without typical opioid dependence liability, anti‑inflammatory and antipruritic actions via KOR and CB1 interactions, inhibition of intestinal motility (relevance for IBS), inhibition of leukotriene‑mediated inflammation, and antiproliferative effects in some tumour models. Human case reports and small series (e.g., Hanes) are cited suggesting potential benefit in treatment‑resistant depression with sub‑psychoactive oral dosing, but these are uncontrolled and preliminary. Preclinical data also indicate SA can reduce cocaine‑related behaviours in rodents, suggesting potential in stimulant addiction treatment. Maqueda cautions that much evidence is preclinical or anecdotal and that Australia outlawed S. divinorum in 2002 despite such reports.

Maqueda frames Salvia divinorum as a medicinal plant whose traditional Mazatec uses are concordant with several pharmacological properties of salvinorin A, while also emphasising important differences between Mazatec practice and common Western consumption patterns. She interprets the distinct pharmacology of SA — a potent, selective KOR agonist — as opening therapeutic possibilities that are different from serotonergic psychedelics: non‑addictive analgesia, anti‑inflammatories, neuroprotection, short‑acting anaesthesia, antidepressant effects and treatments for stimulant dependence are highlighted as promising lines for drug development. The author stresses that traditional Mazatec practice treats the plant as a powerful spirit and that the ritual mode of ingestion (fresh leaves chewed, ceremonial context, dietary rules) yields a slower, longer and culturally embedded experience that is not equivalent to rapid inhalation of extracts. She argues for bridging these perspectives rather than reducing the plant to a single molecule, while acknowledging modern research value in isolating and understanding SA's mechanisms. Maqueda acknowledges key limitations and uncertainties: human experimental samples remain small; long‑term safety data are sparse; most contemporary research has focused on a single cultivated strain (the "Bunnell" variety) while wild diversity and seed‑derived varieties have been little studied; and the ecological and cultural dimensions (including Mazatec concerns about misuse, smoking extracts, and legal control) complicate translational paths. She also warns that smoking potentiated extracts can produce overwhelming, fast‑onset states and calls for precision dosing (milligram scales), informed sitters, and careful set and setting. Implications the author highlights include the need for more rigorous human research (safety, dose–response, neurophysiology and clinical trials in target indications), ethnobotanical and conservation studies (varietal diversity, seed germination, cultivation practices), and culturally respectful dialogue with Mazatec users to preserve traditional uses while exploring therapeutic applications. Maqueda also offers practical harm‑reduction recommendations informed by Mazatec practice: cultivating cuttings, using fresh‑leaf chewing or tinctures for gentler onset, strict ritual or preparatory practice, starting with small doses, and employing sober sitters for smoked potentiated extracts. She calls for further study of unanswered questions (long‑term effects among Mazatec elders, traditional chants associated with ceremonies, and broader phytochemical roles of other terpenes in the leaves).